Introduction
Cognitive apprenticeship is a process by which learners learn from a more experienced person by way of cognitive and metacognitive skills and processes, Dennen & Burner (2008).
Cognitive Apprenticeship is a theory that attempts to bring tacit processes out in the open. It assumes that people learn from one another through, observation, imitation and modeling. (Collins et al, 1987)
Therefore cognitive apprenticeship is the learning theory which involves two parts, expert (teacher) and non-expert (learners) and it includes cognitive and meta-cognitive skills by using different ways such as coaching, scaffolding, imitating and observation.
Task
Discuss the meaning, history, originators, types, implications, of cognitive apprenticeship theory and how this theory can be effected in classroom by integrating it with ICT.
Process
History of the theory:
Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of the process where a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice.
Around 1987, Collins, Brown, and Newman developed six teaching methods —modelling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection and exploration. These methods enable students to cognitive and metacognitive strategies for “using, managing, and discovering knowledge”
Constructivist approaches to human learning have led to the development of a theory of cognitive apprenticeship. This theory holds that masters of a skill often fail to take into account the implicit processes involved in carrying out complex skills when they are teaching novices. To combat these tendencies, cognitive apprenticeships are designed, among other things, to bring these tacit processes into the open, where students can observe, enact, and practice them with help from the teacher. This model is supported by Albert Bandura's (1997) theory of modeling, which posits that in order for modeling to be successful, the learner must be attentive, must have access to and retain the information presented, must be motivated to learn, and must be able to accurately reproduce the desired skill.
Originators of the theory
Originators of the theory are Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (Around 1987).
Key terms of the cognitive apprenticeship theory:
Apprenticeship: A process through which a more experienced person assists a less experienced one by way of demonstration, support, and examples.
Cognitive apprenticeship: An apprenticeship process that utilizes cognitive and metacognitive skills and processes to guide learning.
Situatedness: The context or constellation of influential events and elements that govern and shape human life. Context, or situatedness, reflects the ways in which cultural, historical, and institutional factors influence the actions of our everyday lives (Brown et al., 1989; Rogoff, 1990; Wertsch, 1998).
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): A term coined by Vygotsky to describe the space between a learner’s current skill level and the next skill. level that the learner cannot reach without assistance (Scaffolding).
Scaffolding; Scaffolding is the process of supporting students in their learning. Support structures are put into place. In some instances, the expert may have to help with aspects of the task that the student cannot do yet.
Coaching: In cognitive apprenticeship, assisting and supporting learners’ cognitive activities.
Modeling means performing a mental task in front of students in such a way that they are able to observe the processes needed to perform it and thus form a conceptual model of their own, one which includes a heuristic and control strategies as well as domain knowledge.
Reflection; Reflection allows students to “compare their own problem-solving processes with those of an expert, another student, and ultimately, an internal cognitive model of expertise” . A technique for reflection could be to examine the past performances of both expert and novice and to highlight similarities and differences. The goal of reflection is for students to look back and analyze their performances with a desire for understanding and improvement towards the behavior of an expert.
Articulation: In cognitive apprenticeship is verbalizing the results of reflective acts.
Exploration: Exploration involves giving students room to problem solve on their own and teaching students exploration strategies. The former requires the teacher to slowly withdraw the use of supports and scaffolds not only in problem solving methods, but problem setting methods as well. The latter requires the teacher to show students how to explore, research, and develop hypotheses. Exploration allows the student to frame interesting problems within the domain for themselves and then take the initiative to solve these problems.
Principles of the theory
In cognitive apprenticeship approach of learning; teaching methods should give students the chance to observe, engage in, invent, or discover expert strategies in context. The Collins, Brown, and Newman model includes a variety of methods (modeling, coaching, scaffolding, reflection and articulation) that systematically encourage student exploration and independence. Teachers (experts) coach offering hints, feedbacks, and reminders; provide "scaffolding" support for students as they learn to carry out tasks; and "fade" gradually handing over control of the learning process to the student.
During the teaching and learning process; Cognitive apprenticeship encourages reflection on differences between novices and expert performance
Cognitive apprenticeship encourages the development of self-monitoring and correction skills required for the problem solver to alternate among different cognitive activities.
Tasks are sequenced (Sequencing) to reflect the changing demands of learning; increasing complexity, increasing diversity, and global before local skills.
The approach also encourages Sociology for exploiting cooperation and the culture of expert practice to extend situated learning to diverse settings so that students learn how to apply their skills in varied context with intrinsic motivation.
Implication of the theory in education;
Repercussions of the cognitive apprenticeship theory of learning in Education include the following;
It predicts the transformation of the teaching-learning process and the way teachers and learners gain access to knowledge and information
The theory encourages the discovery of knowledge by learners .Due to the fact that teacher act as a facilitator to learning so learners use the guide or assistance(scaffolding) from teacher to discover and acquire new knowledge. It helps learners to make many arguments on the subject matter and sequence decisions on their own during the learning process
It promotes curiosity to learners since the learner get a chance to provide his rational thinking about the introduced subject matter. Exploration intends to guide the novice towards independence and the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain on their own
It helps a learner to build confidence and competence. This occurs when a learner performs tasks by his/her own, after being directed by a facilitator. In so doing the learner develops confidence and competence on the intended skills or knowledge.
It promotes effective use of sense organ in learning as a result of cognitive domain.
It enhances the use of technological tools such as computers, smartphone and tablets since learners use their time to study and find information and knowledge about the task provided
Cognitive apprenticeship offers a learning-centered model (Barr, 1998) that can be applied to a variety of education programs, both academic and vocational. By maximizing the value of prior learning, and by narrowing the gap between precept and practice, cognitive apprenticeship would be the learning model of choice for programs aimed at generating informed, skilled, employable, fulfilled, critical-thinking, problem-solving individuals.
How can the theory be effected in the classroom by integrating with ICT:
There are different ways that involve ICT to bring about learning through Cognitive Apprenticeship approach. These techniques include;
Learning by using simulation when a teacher displays real pictures on a specific lesson to learners in the class by using a projector.
When expert gives a little direction to students on how students can use Microsoft applications such as Ms excel, Ms word and Ms powerPoint, then students demonstrate them practically. This is Scaffolding and Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. Scaffolding might be provided by human interactants mediated by computers.
Use of internet. learners in the classroom share computers. This makes good application on the use of internet for searching different information about the subject matter. cognitive apprenticeship approach is proposed for conducting collaborative problem-solving learning activities on the Internet
Working together and sharing laptops can result in effective peer support, create more enthusiasm and ensure high levels of equipment usage making ICTs provision more cost-effective.
Conclusion
Generally; learning occurs when an individual is provided with necessary help and instructions from the expert of the intended knowledge or skill under suitable context