Introduction
Multimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory teaching materials teaching and learning arena, it may include video, computer and other information technology. Whereas multimedia learning theory focuses on the principles that determine the effective use of multimedia in learning, with emphasis on using both the visual and auditory channels for information processing.
Task
Describe Multimedia theory of learning (Richard Mayer)?
Process
Historical back ground of multimedia theory
The concept multimedia is derived from the words ‘multi’ which means many or multiple; and ‘media/medium’ which refers to tool/vehicle or agent to present or communicate something
According to Mayer (1997) a generative theory of multimedia takes places to the learner in the roles of a “knowledge constructor who select and connect visual and verbal knowledge” (pg. 4) Mayer not that meaningful learning takes places when the person select the most important information, organizes it into a logical mental picture and integrates the information with existing information
A traditional way of thinking through something that is new is to receiver its histories of multimedia are still being negotiated and include the histories of different media, the history of computing and the history the critical theories applied to multimedia one history of multimedia is history of personal computer as it evolved from an institutional machines designed for numerical processing to a multimedia personal computer as it emerged after the world war it’s a general purposes through programing and peripherals. The history of computer since the ENIAC (1946) can be seen as the working out of this idea in different ways, including the techniques for managing different media while the first computer were designed solely to do scientific and applied numerical calculation, they were eventually extended to handle alphanumeric string (text) raster and vector graphics, audio moving pictures (video and animation) and finally three dimensional object and space. Today’s personal computer can handle all these media with the appropriate peripherals making multimedia development and communication available to the home user.
Mayer's theory is based on three assumptions suggested by cognitive research
Dual-channel assumption - The verbal and visual channels (similar to what Baddeley called phonological loop system and visuo-spatial sketchpad) in our working memory are separated and can be used for processing information simultaneously thus enhancing process of learning. The suggestion that human working memory has more sub-components firstly came from the working memory models designed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974 and reviewed by Baddeley in 1992. These findings where further incorporated to the Dual coding theory by Allan Paivio and later by Mayer and his colleagues.
Limited capacity assumption - As Miller's Information processing theory has shown, these channels have limited capacity and limited time they can hold information. Too much information can therefore cause cognitive overload.
Active-processing assumption - Learning is an active process of collecting, organizing and integrating new information. Similarities with constructivist learning may be noticed in this definition.
Mayer’s multimedia cognitive theory of learning contends that words and pictures presented to the learner via a multimedia presentation are processed along two separate, non-conflicting channels (figure 1). They enter the sensory memory through the ears and eyes. Words and images are actively selected by the learner from the sensory memory and enter the working memory where they are organized into a verbal model and a pictorial model. Each channel can process only a few “chunks” of information at a given time in working memory. The two models are then integrated with prior knowledge retrieved from long-term memory. This integration occurs within the working memory following each segmented portion of instruction offered to the learner in the multimedia presentation.
Figure 1
Influence of the Science of Learning
Key terms in multimedia theory of learning
Mayer’s cognitive theory of learning incorporates four elements from research on how people learn: (a) dual-coding theory, (b) limited capacity working memory, (c) active processing and (d) information transfer.
Dual-Coding Theory Dual processing cognitive theory was first described by Allan Paivio in 1986. The theory suggests that verbal and visual stimuli are processed separately but simultaneously in working memory. Alan Baddeley’s model of working memory (figure 2) also incorporated dual pathway concepts in the form of a central executive regulating a phonological loop and a visuo-spatial sketch pad. He later revised his model to include an episodic buffer
Figure 2. Baddeley's Model of Working Memory
Limited capacity of working memory
It is postulated that the working memory can hold a limited number of items or “chunks” of information at one time which requires us to choose where to allocate cognitive resources. Baddeley’s model of working memory recognized that although the central executive could store information, it was limited in its capability to do so. Cognitive load theory was developed by John Sweller who proposed there were limitations on the capacity of working memory and that cognitive load is cumulative in nature, which can affect the ability to learn. Mayer allows for the concept of the limited capacity of working memory by recommending segmenting of instruction and excluding extraneous information.
Active Processing
The cognitive theory of learning acknowledges that humans are actively engaged in cognitive processing in order to make sense of the stimuli presented. We do not passively receive information into our memory. The concept of active processing is reflected in the multimedia theory of learning by the inclusion of selecting, organizing and integrating information. In his book, Multimedia Learning, Mayer states: ”Perhaps the most crucial step in multimedia learning involves making connections between word-based and image-based representations.”
Information Transfer
When meaningful learning takes place, people are able to retrieve newly acquired knowledge from long-term memory when they need it to perform a given task. Transfer can be further divided into near-transfer for knowledge that is used immediately after learning it, and far-transfer for when knowledge is needed some time after learning it. Clark & Mayer recommend using worked examples to facilitate both types of transfer.
Influence of the Science of Instruction
From the science of instruction, three key elements are integrated into the multimedia theory of learning: (a) extraneous cognitive load, (b) essential processing and (c) generative learning.
Extraneous Processing
When information irrelevant to the learning objective requires processing, it is considered extraneous cognitive load. Extraneous information competes for the limited cognitive resources available in the working memory and as a result, interferes with efficient learning of the intended objectives. Sweller’s Cognitive load theory describes three types of cognitive load; intrinsic (caused by content), germane (relevant to learning) and extraneous (irrelevant to learning). Five Mayer’s principles of multimedia instruction address reducing extraneous cognitive load.
Essential Processing
Essential processing is the learner’s ability to understand the main points of the multimedia presentation. What is processed by the learner depends on what is attended to or selected during the instructional period. When essential cognitive processing outstrips the learner’s intrinsic cognitive capacity, learning fails to thrive. For example, onscreen text presented simultaneously with animation causes split attention and the visual channel is overloaded. The design of the multimedia presentation can facilitate and direct selection of appropriate material for cognitive processing. For this reason, Mayer offers three principles for managing essential processing when designing instruction.
Generative Learning
Merlin C. Wittrock proposed a model of generative learning, which emphasized the importance of linking concepts, information, prior knowledge and experience. Mayer puts forward two principles for fostering generative processing to deal with this concept.
Mayer’s 10 Principles of Multimedia Instruction
Five Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing
Coherence Principle: People learn better when extraneous material is excluded from a multimedia lesson.
Signaling Principle: People learn better when essential words are highlighted.
Redundancy Principle: People learn better from animation with narration than from animation with narration and text except when the onscreen text is short, highlights the key action described in the narration, and is placed next to the portion of the graphic that it describes. In 2008, Mayer revised this principle to include the exception noted here.
Spatial Contiguity Principle: People learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on the page or screen.
Temporal Contiguity Principle: People learn better when corresponding narration and animation are presented simultaneously rather than successively (i.e. the words are spoken at the same time they are illustrated in the animation).
Three Principles for Managing Essential Processing
Segmenting Principle: People learn better when a narrated animation is presented in learner-paced segments rather than as a continuous presentation.
Pre-training Principle: People learn better from a narrated animation when they already know the names and characteristics of essential components.
Modality Principle: People learn better from graphics with spoken text rather than graphics with printed text.
Two Principles for Fostering Generative Processing
Multimedia Principle: People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone. This allows people to build connections between their verbal and pictorial models.
Personalization Principle: People learn better from a multimedia lesson when words are in conversational style rather than formal style. If people feel as though they are engaged in a conversation, they will make more effort to understand what the other person is saying.
Implication of multimedia theory of learning in education
- It seeks to code knowledge in at least 2 different forms of visual representation to convey meanings in richer and contextually distinct manners.
- It incorporates at least two different media of representation to scaffold and streamline information processing in learners. This is predicated on the understanding that our working memory consists of at least two information processing conduits as visual and auditory channels.
- Learners who have high spatial ability hold onto visual images in the visual component of the working memory for longer periods of time therefore contiguity and multimedia have more benefits for high spatial learners (Mayer & Sims, 1994).
- In Education, multimedia resources allow the user to go through a series of presentations, text and associated illustrations about a particular topic in various information formats. Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia resulting in the development of specific areas of research (e.g. Cognitive load, Multimedia learning).
Effects of integrating the theory with ICT in the classroom setting.
There is a growing body of evidence that use of ICT in the classroom can enhance learning (Meiers, 2009). Computer-based multimedia learning environments - consisting of images, text and sound - offer a potentially powerful setting for improving student understanding. However, all multimedia resources are not equally effective, so the challenge teachers face is how to assess and select multimedia resources that best promote meaningful learning. How can we use words and pictures to help students explore the life stories of significant Indigenous figures, learn how the language and techniques of filmmaking are used to tell stories, explore the characteristics of scatter plot graphs, explore the properties of right-angled triangles to calculate unknown quantities, better understand the current model of the Earth's structure or solve a product design brief.
Conclusion
Mayer and Moreno (2002) discuss the cognitive theory of how learners process multimedia information. This theory can be used to guide teachers to assess and select the most effective multimedia resources for learning in the classroom. The most substantial gains in pupil attainment are achievable where the use of ICT is planned, structured and integrated effectively. Also, teachers need to be aware that there are times when the use of ICT is appropriate for a particular task and other times when different media are more appropriate